Introduction to Indian History
Prehistory refers to the long span of time before the invention of writing and recorded history. It includes significant events and developments such as the Neolithic Revolution, the existence of Neanderthals and Denisovans, the construction of Stonehenge, the era of the Ice Age, and many other early human milestones.
Study of the Past
The study of the past is known as history. It helps us understand how human societies evolved over time, how civilizations rose and fell, and how cultures, traditions, and ideas developed. By studying history, we gain insights into the achievements and mistakes of earlier generations, which help us make informed decisions in the present. Historical study relies on various sources such as written records, inscriptions, coins, tools, monuments, and oral traditions. These sources allow historians to reconstruct events, analyze causes and effects, and trace the journey of human progress. History not only tells us about kings and wars but also about the everyday lives of people, their beliefs, social structures, and economic activities. In short, studying the past connects us to our roots and helps us understand the world we live in today.
India has one of the oldest and most diverse histories in the world, stretching back over 5,000 years. Known as the cradle of civilization, India was home to the Indus Valley Civilization—one of the world’s first urban cultures. Over the centuries, the Indian subcontinent saw the rise and fall of powerful empires such as the Maurya, Gupta, Mughal, and Maratha dynasties. Each contributed significantly to art, science, philosophy, and culture. The arrival of European colonial powers in the 17th century, especially the British, led to nearly 200 years of colonial rule. India’s struggle for freedom, led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi, culminated in independence on August 15, 1947. Indian history is not only a story of invasions and empires but also one of resilience, innovation, and cultural continuity, shaping the rich and diverse nation we know today. Historical Sources of Indian History
1.Primary Sources (Original Records from the Past)
Ancient India
Travelers’ Accounts: Megasthenes (Indica), Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang
Vedas, Upanishads, and Epics: Rigveda, Samaveda, Mahabharata, Ramayana – major literary sources.
Ashokan Inscriptions: Rock edicts and pillar inscriptions in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic.
Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya): Political and economic treatise from the Maurya period.
Sangam Literature: Ancient Tamil poems from South India.
Indus Valley Seals and Archaeological Remains: Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro.
Medieval India
- Court Chronicles:
- Baburnama, Akbarnama (by Abul Fazl), Ain-i-Akbari
- Tuzk-e-Jahangiri (memoirs of Jahangir)
- Inscriptions and Coins from Chola, Delhi Sultanate, and Vijayanagar empires.
- Foreign Accounts: Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta, Al-Biruni.
Modern India
- Official British Records: Reports, censuses, legislative acts, India Office Records (London).
- Newspapers & Journals: The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika, Kesari, Young India.
- Freedom Movement Documents: Letters, speeches, and writings of leaders like Gandhi, Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose.
- Autobiographies & Biographies:
- My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi
- Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru
2. Secondary Sources (Interpretations by Historians)
These are scholarly interpretations or reconstructions of past events based on primary sources.
Important Books
- “A History of India” by Romila Thapar – Ancient India
- “Medieval India” by Satish Chandra
- “India’s Struggle for Independence” by Bipan Chandra
- “India After Gandhi” by Ramachandra Guha
Research Journals and Institutions
- Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) – https://ichr.ac.in
- Indian History Congress (IHC)
- Epigraphia Indica – published by the Archaeological Survey of India
Pre-History of India
The prehistory of India refers to the period before the invention of writing, when humans left behind no written records but lived, hunted, and developed tools. This era is divided into three main phases: the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age) periods. The earliest humans in India lived around 2 million years ago, as evidenced by stone tools found in places like Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu), and Hunsgi (Karnataka). These early people were hunter-gatherers who depended on nature for food and shelter. Over time, they began to domesticate animals and cultivate crops, especially during the Neolithic period, which marked the beginning of settled village life. Prehistoric rock paintings found in Bhimbetka Caves show early man’s creativity and connection to nature. Although no writing exists from this time, archaeological discoveries provide important clues about how ancient Indians lived before history was recorded.
Paleolithic Age in India
The Paleolithic Age, also known as the Old Stone Age, is the earliest and longest phase of human history in India, dating from around 2 million years ago to about 10,000 BCE. During this period, early humans lived in small groups, depending on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild fruits and roots for survival. They used simple stone tools—mostly hand axes, choppers, and flakes—which were made by chipping stones. These tools have been discovered in several parts of India, especially in regions like Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu), Hunsgi (Karnataka), and the Soan Valley (now in Pakistan). People of the Paleolithic period lived in caves or rock shelters, such as the famous Bhimbetka rock shelters, where early humans also left behind cave paintings depicting animals and daily life. They had no knowledge of farming or pottery, and fire was used for warmth, protection, and cooking. The Paleolithic Age laid the foundation for human evolution and the later development of civilizations.
Mesolithic Age in India (Middle Stone Age)
The Mesolithic Age, or Middle Stone Age, in India lasted roughly from 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE, bridging the gap between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. During this time, climatic conditions became warmer and more stable, leading to changes in the lifestyle of early humans. People in the Mesolithic period continued to hunt and gather, but they also started domesticating animals and fishing, marking the beginning of semi-nomadic life. A key feature of this period is the use of microliths—tiny, sharp stone tools often attached to wood or bone to form arrows, spears, and sickles. These tools were more advanced and efficient than those of the earlier Paleolithic period. Evidence of Mesolithic settlements has been found in places like Bagor (Rajasthan), Langhnaj (Gujarat), and Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh). People lived in rock shelters and open areas, and some sites show early signs of burial practices and rock art, suggesting a growing sense of social and cultural development.
Neolithic Age in India (New Stone Age)
The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, in India began around 7000 BCE and lasted until about 1000 BCE. It marked a major turning point in human history, as people moved from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled agricultural life. During this period, early humans learned to cultivate crops, especially wheat, barley, and rice, and began domesticating animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. This led to the establishment of permanent villages and the development of pottery, weaving, and better tools made of polished stone. Neolithic people also built mud houses and granaries for food storage. Important Neolithic sites in India include Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), Hallur and Maski (Karnataka). Some sites, like Burzahom, even show evidence of pit dwellings and domesticated dogs. The Neolithic Age laid the foundation for the rise of complex societies and the eventual emergence of urban civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization.
